Colonial Williamsburg Digital Library

Introduction

The area of Williamsburg, Virginia known as College Landing or Port Anne is located between South Henry Street and College Creek, on the southern edge of the city limits. The landing area served throughout most of the eighteenth and part of the nineteenth centuries as Williamsburg's major port, linking it to local and European trade routes via the James River. A similar port, Capitol Landing, was established on the north end of town, accessing Williamsburg to the Chesapeake Bay by way of Queen's Creek and the York River. Both ports were about a mile from the center of town.

Before the establishment of the College of William and Mary in 1693 and Williamsburg in 1699, this area between the York and the James was called Middle Plantation and College Creek was known as Archer's Hope Creek. This report is primarily concerned with a site dating to this early Middle Plantation Period.

In the fall of 1985, the City of Williamsburg contacted Colonial Williamsburg's Office of Archaeological Excavation regarding an archaeological survey of a portion of the College Landing Area. Most of what was College Landing had been purchased by developer Gerald S. Divaris and was slated to become a new residential area called Port Anne. The portion of College Landing concerning the City was that section appearing on the Matthew Davenport Map of 1774. This became referred to as the "platted portion."

During the late summer and fall of the following year, a Phase I and II investigation of the area was conducted. The purpose of this type of survey is to locate and archaeologically test sites of historical or prehistorical significance and make recommendations regarding the fate of such archaeological sites. In addition to surveying the so-called "platted portion," Port Anne developer Gerald Divaris allowed a survey of his property as well. Seven sites were identified during the survey, four within the platted portion and three to the west and north. Five of the sites were historic, dating from the eighteenth century, and one was Indian, probably dating to about 1000 A.D. The remaining site was historic, but much earlier than the others, dating to the first half of the seventeenth century (Figure 2).

The latter site was an accidental find discovered by the surveying archaeologists while a road, later known as Hague Close, was being constructed. The survey team had been previously excluded from the area by the contractor because of the dangers inherent in the tree-felling phase of construction. As the topsoil and plowzone were being stripped away in preparation for the road bed, numerous archaeological features, including two human burials, several post holes, a trash pit, and a boundary ditch, were discovered. In light of these finds, contractor Jack L. Massey was kind enough to move his operation to another part of the Project while salvage excavations were underway. The site was given a designation (College Landing Site #7, or CL7), and the features were mapped and excavated (Figure 3).

After the features which were in immediate danger were excavated, further testing in the area revealed a fairly large seventeenth century site containing several 2 Figure 1. Corporate limits, city of Williamsburg and environs. 3 Figure 2. Sites located during the 1986 archaeological survey. 4 Figure 3. Plan of features located at CL7 during initial survey. 5 more graves and a feature, thought to be a house cellar, containing a great deal of seventeenth-century material. It was, however, beyond the scope of the survey to investigate further. The importance of the site was emphasized in Gregory J. Brown's report on the Phase I and II Project (Brown 1986), and funds were made available from the City of Williamsburg, the developer, and the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation for a more intensive investigation of the site.

This more intensive study, called by archaeologists a "Phase III Salvage Excavation" was begun on December 22, 1986 and continued, initially, through the first week in March, 1987.

Acknowledgements

Numerous people were responsible or helpful in the successful completion of this phase of archaeological investigation at College Landing. Principal among these were Gerald S. Divaris of Divaris Real Estate, developer of the Port Anne Project, who gave freely his personal and financial support to the excavation of this important seventeenth-century site. Equally supportive was Williamsburg City Manager Frank Force, Mayor John Hodges, and the rest of the City Council who funded the initial survey and a third of the costs for the excavation of CL7. Colonial Williamsburg's Director of Research, Cary Carson, and his enthusiasm made funds available from the Foundation and offered his knowledgeable insights into the archaeology of seventeenth-century Virginia.

Marley R. Brown III, Director of the Office of Archaeological Excavation for the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, was the Principal Investigator. It was his responsibility to initiate, administer, and direct the project and guide the completion of this report.

Also very helpful in expediting the project were Colonial Williamsburg Vice Presidents Robert C. Birney and Norman G. Beatty, as well as City Attorney Joseph Phillips.

Much credit also goes to the core excavation team, Nathaniel Smith, Charles Thomas, and Lucie Vinciguerra, who persevered admirably through one of the most uncomfortable and wet winters this area has experienced in a number of years. Consultant Charles T. Hodges was very helpful during the latter part of the project. His expertise and experience in early seventeenth-century colonial archaeology was quite well received and used. Meredith Moodey and Felicity Devlin, under the direction of Collections Supervisor William Pittman and Senior Laboratory Technician Leslie McFaden, did an excellent job of processing the incoming artifacts and skeletal remains. Mr. Pittman and Ms. McFaden compiled the artifact inventory and directed the clay pipe analysis which resulted in a report, produced under separate cover, by William and Mary History graduate students Christopher Hendricks and David Lester.

Joanne Gaynor, Staff Zooarchaeologist, and her assistant, Roni Polk, completed the analysis of the animal bone found during the excavation. Report drawings and photographs were the outstanding and timely work of Staff Photographer Tamera Mams.

Colonial Williamsburg's Resident Archaeologist, Ivor Noël Hume, was kind enough to offer his insights and expertise regarding the archaeology of the site and the artifacts recovered. Staff Archaeologist Gregory J. Brown, who directed the initial survey of the College Landing Area and wrote the December 1986 report on the Phase I and II archaeological investigations, was extremely helpful in offering information and assistance pertaining to his efforts during the past year.

Thanks should also be extended to Dudley S. Waltrip and Sons, Inc. and their expert machine operator Charlie Green who carefully guided his Drott 40 around and between the trees in order to cleanly and evenly strip the site in a very short time.

Historical Background¹

The Tidewater Virginia Area has been inhabited for an estimated 12,000 years. Evidence of American Indian occupation in the riverine and upland areas of the peninsula has been documented through various archaeological surveys (Hunter and Higgins 1985; Hunter, Higgins, and Hodges, in preparation; and Hunter and Kandle 1986). Most of these sites are of the Archaic (8000 B.C.-500 B.C.) and the Woodland (500 B.C.-1607 A.D.) Periods. Since no comprehensive study has been made of the Williamsburg Area's aboriginal component, little is known about the Indians of the vicinity prior to the immigration of the English in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth. centuries. Only one site, CL3, dating to the Middle or Late Woodland Periods, was located during the 1986 survey. No Indian artifacts were found during the excavation of CL7.

After the establishment of Jamestown in 1607, little interest was exhibited on the part of the early colonists to settle inland areas in Tidewater, even within the narrow peninsula between the James and York Rivers. Undoubtedly feeling somewhat vulnerable to the local aborigines (especially after the Massacre of 1622), the English confined most of their activities to the banks of Virginia's major rivers. The falling tobacco prices in the early 1620's (Craven 1970), the massacre, and the failing of the London Company spelled unfavorable economic times for most Virginia colonists. It was not until the 1630's that the economy began to improve and settlement was encouraged in the inland areas. Middle Plantation was one of the earliest and eventually the most successful inland venture in the seventeenth century.

In 1632 the House of Burgesses passed the "Act for Seating of the Middle Plantation" (Goodwin 1959) which called for the erection of a palisade² between the James and the York, across what is today the City of Williamsburg. Settlement was strongly encouraged along the palisade in order to ensure its purpose: fencing the Indians out of the lower peninsula and fencing the livestock in. The exact location of this palisade is not known on the southern side of town, although archaeological evidence of the ditch and post holes were found on the north side of town during a Phase I survey conducted by Colonial Williamsburg's Office of Archaeological Excavation for the proposed Second Street extension (Hunter et.al. 1985). The time period and location of Site CL7 place it temporally and spatially at least near where the palisade was probably built (Figure 4). No evidence of the structure was found there, however.

One of the first residents of the Middle Plantation area was the Colony's Physician General, John Pott(s). He was apparently quite a colorful character, whose 9 Figure 4. Conjectural location of the 1634 palisade. 10 talents as a physician were renowned and who served as governor of Virginia in 1629. He was, however, convicted of cattle theft in 1630 and was often admonished for his keeping of bad company and his taste for strong drink (Goodwin 1959). In spite of these apparent shortcomings, he remained a powerful member of the Council and in 1635 conspired in the successful ousting of Governor Harvey. Other early landholders in the area included George Menifie, Humphrey Higginson, John Utie, and Charles Leech. Unfortunately the destruction of James City County records during the American Civil War has left historians with some uncertainty regarding who owned what in the early seventeenth century. The actual ownership of site CL7 is therefore unknown. It would have been fortunate if John Potts could have been associated with the site, given his apparent notoriety. However, Colonial Williamsburg Historian Peter Bergstrom believes his residence was further south, probably around The Oaks on Henry area (Bergstrom 1987, personal communication).

By 1674 Middle Plantation was a part of Bruton Parish, and a brick church was built near the present one in 1683. A church previous to the 1683 structure is believed to have existed somewhere in the Middle Plantation area, but its location is wholly unknown (Hudson 1987, personal communication).

Nathaniel Bacon met with his followers at Middle Plantation in 1676 before proceeding to burn Jamestown. The College of William and Mary was established there in 1693, and the capitol moved to Middle Plantation in 1699. The town's name was changed to Williamsburg with the movement of the Capitol and the laying out of streets and lots in an orderly fashion.

The "College Landing" area, as it has been known since the eighteenth century, played an important role in Williamsburg's commercial trade. By the first half of the eighteenth century College Landing boasted of several warehouses, tobacco houses, an inspection station, a ferry, and probably a tavern or two. It continued to be an important port until the early nineteenth century.

The CL7 site was apparently abandoned in the last quarter of the seventeenth century as indicated by the artifactual material found in the trash pit and borrow pit features. Although much of the area south of the site was used throughout the eighteenth century as a port, little further activity seemed to take place at CL7 until it was farmed in the nineteenth century. The immediate area remained in disuse much of this century until it was purchased from Duncan Cocke and the Savage family by developer Gerald S. Divaris, and slated for development.

Goals and Methods

The principal goal of the Phase III archaeological investigation was straight forward: locate and excavate all graves and as many other archaeological features such as trash pits, post holes, ditches, etc. as possible before the development was opened to the public for the purchase of lots and house construction. All of these features were to be explored before they were destroyed by this construction. The human remains were to be removed from their original graves, studied, and reinterred in a safe location. The information derived from the archaeology would culminate in the production of at least two reports, one for public information and another with more academic intent. By comparing what was found at CL7 with contemporary sites at Martin's Hundred, Kingsmill, Flowerdew Hundred, and others in Tidewater Virginia and Maryland, it was hoped that a better understanding of this somewhat murky period in the early settlement of this country could be reached.

The archaeological methods were tailored to fit the tight time frame necessary to complete the job within the allotted eight weeks. The way the site was recorded had to be a compromise between strict archaeological recovery and rough salvage. Enough time and money had been allot so that rough salvage was not necessary, but no so much of either that an extremely detailed analysis of such things as plowzone distribution, soil chemistry, or micro-faunal recovery could be attempted. Funds were available for only four excavators including the Project Supervisor. The site had been physically divided by the construction of Hague Close; the graveyard lay on the west side of the street and the apparent house site on the east. In effect, the street made two sites out of what was originally only one. Two excavators were assigned to each half, two to excavate the graves and two to excavate all the features on the east side of the street.

As mentioned earlier, both the graveyard and the domestic site were stripped of the topsoil and plowzone overburden. Both of these layers were, by their nature, highly disturbed. On sites with less time constraints and more personnel, however, the plowzone is excavated very carefully. A grid consisting of 2.5' squares is imposed on the site and each artifact recovered from each square receives a locational designation. The distribution of artifacts within the plowzone can be ascertained, indicating concentrations that probably exist in subsurface features. This is, however, a very time-consuming and labor-intensive method which would not be feasible in this case. The depth of the topsoil and plowzone varied from about one foot to eighteen inches, below which was an underlying layer of what is called "subsoil". Subsoil contains no artifacts because it was deposited before man took residence in the area. However, when the seventeenth-century colonists dug deep holes for placing house or fence posts, burying trash, or making a grave, this subsoil was disturbed. By removing the topsoil and plowzone over the subsoil, these disturbances intruding into the subsoil become clear. The graves and pits were usually of a darker color than the surrounding subsoil because of the mixing with the then-existing topsoil when they were backfilled. These phenomena are called "features" by archaeologists (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Feature formation process.

Each of the archaeological features found intruding the topsoil at CL7 were drawn on a scale map and excavated. Each feature was given a number to distinguish it and the artifacts it contained from other features. Since the kind, number, and the condition of the artifacts from individual features are very important in the interpretation of a site, it is extremely important to keep separate the artifacts removed from each feature.

All of the artifacts and the human remains removed from the site were taken to the Office of Archaeological Excavation laboratory where they were cleaned, catalogued, and studied by Colonial Williamsburg archaeologists.

Findings
Graveyard Area

Machine removal of the topsoil and plowzone overburden in the graveyard area west of Hague Close revealed eight graves in addition to the two found in the road-cut during the initial survey. Before excavation, the graves appeared as rectangular brown features in light brown subsoil. The graves were numbered one through eight in order of excavation (Figure 6).

All of the human remains, which consisted of seven adults and one child, were in a very bad state of preservation. In the case of the child, only the crowns of two teeth were found within the grave fill. No whole bones existed in any of the graves (Figures 7, 9-12). Five of the graves, including that of the child, contained numerous nails, indicating the deceased were buried in coffins. At least one of the coffins (Grave 5) appears to be of the vaulted type Noël Hume found at Martin's Hundred (Noël Hume 1982). This is indicated by the presence of nails found along the center of where the coffin lid would have been and by the position of the nails forming and arc at the foot end of the grave (Figure 8). The presence of at least one or two straight pins in all the graves reveals that all of the remains were shrouded before burial, whether or not they were buried in a coffin.

Very few artifacts, other than coffin nails, were found associated with any of the graves. The only artifacts recovered, other than nails were a fragment from the "face" portion of a Bellarmine stoneware jug, and a tiny piece of redware (Figure 13). Archaeologists once attempted to derive a date of manufacture from the degree of abstraction exhibited in the face molded onto the neck of Bellarmine bottles. The more abstract the face, the more recent the date of manufacture. According to Ivor Noël Hume (Noël Hume 1987, personal communication), the degree of abstraction in the face molded onto the stoneware bottle has nothing to do with the date it was made. A recently excavated shipwreck (The Batavia) contained a shipment of Bellarmine bottles showing varying degrees of abstraction in the bearded face. Only a general date of the first half of the seventeenth century can be derived from the stoneware and redware found in the grave fills.

The skeletal remains were removed as soon as possible after they were uncovered, fearing damage from the uncommonly cold and wet weather plaguing the excavations in January and February. Some of the more fragile fragments had to be stabilized with liquid plastic before they could be moved. Most of the skulls were removed with large blocks of earth, then excavated in the laboratory under more favorable conditions.

As many of the skeletal remains as possible will be reconstructed, with an attempt made to determine each's sex, age at death, and stature. All of the untreated fragments will be analyzed for traces of lead derived from eating off of lead glazed ceramics and pewter, as well as drinking rum from stills containing lead parts. It may be possible, also, to make correlations between the animal bones found in the trash pits to the amount of meat versus vegetables consumed by the individuals during their 15 Figure 6. Overall plan, graveyard area, CL7. 16 Figure 7. Human remains found in Grave 3. 17 Figure 8. Position of coffin nails, Grave 5. 18 Figure 9. Human remains found in Grave 5. 19 Figure 10. Detail of human skull, Grave 5. 20 Figure 11. Human remains found in Grave 7. 21 Figure 12. Human remains found in Grave 8. 22 Figure 13. Detail of Bellarmine mask from Grave 5. 23 lifetimes. Of interest as well is the comparison of English and colonial dietary habits and how they changed with the colonization process. These techniques use both the isotopic and elemental composition of the human remains to look for traces of marine foods in the diet, the relative proportion of plants and animals eaten, and the use of certain types of plants, such as corn.

After all possible and plausible studies have been made, the remains will be reinterred at a safe place on the Port Anne property.

The graveyard area was totally excavated in the Phase III investigation. Though some area west of that which was uncovered could be stripped and investigated for more graves, the immediate area is believed to be exhausted of features. It is recommended, however, that an archaeologist be on hand when the lot is cleared for reconstruction.

Area East of Hague Close:
The Domestic Site

This area, east of Hague Close, was machine graded the same day as the Graveyard Area. The grading in both areas was somewhat complicated by a city ordinance prohibiting anyone from disturbing trees greater than five inches in diameter. This, of course, resulted in the clearing of a rather irregular area with several unexcavated "islands" of trees surrounded by portions stripped to subsoil. Approximately 3500 square feet of topsoil and plowzone was cleared in December 1986 (Figure 14).

Many of the archaeological features uncovered in this area were grouped into three "macro-features." A macro-feature is a group of features, such as post holes, that taken together make up a single entity, like a post structure or a fence line that can be studied as a unit. Other features may exist on their own, such as garden patches or wells. The three macro-features in this area consisted of two fence lines and a possible post-constructed shed. A borrow pit and several trash pits were also uncovered and excavated in this area, but were not considered macro-features because they existed independently of any other features.

Summary

Site CL7 was first located during an archaeological survey of the College Landing Area conducted by the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation in the summer of 1986. The survey was prompted by the development of a large portion of the area for residential housing. During the grading of what is now Hague Close, numerous post holes, two trash pits, two human graves, and a boundary ditch were uncovered. The ditch, trash pits, three post holes, and both graves were excavated immediately because of the imminent danger posed by the construction effort.

One of the interments excavated from the larger of the two graves was in good condition, the other was in a poor state of preservation. Exploration and testing to the west of the graves revealed three additional graves in what appeared to be a graveyard. None of these were excavated at the time. Further testing to the east found what was believed to be a pit cellar. This feature contained a great deal of colonial artifacts dating to the first half of the seventeenth century, including clay pipe fragments, ceramics, case bottle fragments, and a maiden-head spoon probably dating to the late sixteenth century.

Test pits were also dug along a ten to twenty foot wide road bed leading to a landing on College Creek to the east. Although it appeared that this road serviced the seventeenth-century plantation, no features or artifacts were recovered from the testing. Recommendations were made in Gregory J. Brown's report on the Phase I and II testing for a Phase III salvage investigation of the CL7 site and intact preservation of the road bed. A Phase III salvage excavation was begun in December of 1986, but the majority of the road-bed was destroyed by new road construction in January and February of 1987.

Both the graveyard area and the area east of Hague Close were machine stripped of topsoil and plowzone, revealing eight human interments and part of a fence line probably enclosing the graveyard. All of the graves fell within an area designated for the construction of a , house, so all were fully excavated. The remains, though in very poor condition, were removed to the archaeology laboratory for study.

Stripping the area east of Hague Close revealed three trash pits, another boundary ditch, many post holes, and the continuation of the supposed pit cellar. All of the features were fully excavated with the exception of the post holes which were bisected. The feature thought to be a pit cellar was in actuality more irregular in shape and was probably a borrow pit, later filled with domestic debris. In excess of 3000 artifacts from the first half of the seventeenth century were recovered from the feature.

Since a source for the considerable amount of domestic trash found in the borrow pit and trash pits east of Hague Close was not located during the initial Phase III salvage, more area to the north and east of the section stripped in December was machine graded. Few features were located in the section stripped in late March; one was, however, of significance. The remains of a possible hearth, which would indicate 41 a dwelling and therefore a source for the debris, was located just to the north of the borrow pit. Unfortunately, no other features were found in association with the supposed hearth. The house was either of block construction or the post holes dug for the sill supports had been plowed away in subsequent years. The excavations at CL7 were backfilled on April 27, 1987.

Conclusions

Site CL7 represents a fairly extensive early colonial domestic site occupied over a twenty to forty year period during the mid-seventeenth century. Its uniqueness stems principally from its location, i.e., both inland from a major waterway and within what is today the City of Williamsburg. Although we know little detail from the surviving historical sources, there is extensive documentation regarding the early settlement of the Middle Plantation area. This site, however, is the only one of the very early period of Middle Plantation ever excavated within the present City.

The archaeology at CL7 has determined that the complex consisted of what may have been a dwelling, two possible outbuildings, a series of fence lines, a graveyard assumed to be a family plot,³ and an access road which probably led to Archer's Hope Creek (College Creek) at a point approximately 1800' upstream from what was later College Landing (Brown 1986). Although no physical evidence of the palisade was found during the excavations, educated guesses based on historical research would place it near the site (Bergstrom 1987, personal communication). It is likely, then, that the complex was constructed in order to maintain and, in affect, guard the palisade, per the 1632 "An Act for the Seating of the Middle Plantation" (Goodwin 1959).

The question of who actually lived there and who owned the land during that time period, is, unfortunately, shrouded by the smoke from the records burned during the Civil War. Surviving records seem to indicate that the area occupied by CL7 was probably first owned by John Potts, but was, by the 1630's, owned by either Richard Brewster or William Davis (Boulton n.d.). Colonial Williamsburg Historian Peter Bergstrom believes that Richard Brewster was the most likely owner, and perhaps resident of CL7 (Bergstrom 1987, personal communication).

Although the assemblage of artifacts from CL7 was fairly extensive in number, there were none found that exhibited any owner's marks that would have provided a clue to who lived on the site. Additionally, even though over 5000 artifacts were recovered from the site, the vast majority of those collected from undisturbed features came from the borrow pit. Since this pit appears to have been filled in a relatively short period of time, it lacks a true representation of the materials, ceramic types, glass, etc. in use at the time. Relatively few artifacts were recovered from other features making it difficult to say anything conclusive about the social and economic position of the inhabitants of CL7.

According to Ivor Noël Hume (South 1977:221), the larger the variety of ceramic types from early seventeenth century sites, the higher the economic status of the sites occupants. The borrow pit at CL7 contained representatives of five major ceramic groups from Europe, England, and America. Eleven distinct ceramic types were included in these five major groups - a fairly diverse representation for that period in the seventeenth century. Other economic indicators recovered from the borrow pit College Landing - Site 7 - Plan of Excavated Features 43 include a copper alloy book hinge, upholstery tacks, and a gentleman's spur. These items are probably not things that would be owned by the very poor indentured servant or slave, but rather objects more closely associated with a fairly well-off farmer.

Recommendations

Most of the major features existing at CL7 were, in all likelihood, located and excavated during this Phase III archaeological salvage excavation. There may be other features of significance in the immediate area that the time and manpower available were unable to find and investigate. It is recommended, therefore, that any major construction on lots 10 through 20 be monitored by an archaeologist. Any major features encountered by house construction or landscaping could then be recorded and added to the present knowledge of this important site.

The only further formal archaeological testing recommended at this time would be an attempt to locate physical evidence for the 1632 palisade. This effort would be a difficult one for several reasons. Whatever evidence is left of the palisade, if any, would probably be a filled ditch about three feet wide with post holes on either side of it spaced ten to twelve apart that could be located anywhere between North Henry Street and College Creek. Likely areas such as ridges and existing ditches could be investigated first, with the effort coordinated by Colonial Williamsburg historians. The effort would require a great deal of machine stripping, however, which would lend an aesthetic appeal to the development. Should the palisade be located, however, it would help answer many questions historians have about land ownership in the seventeenth century and solve a mystery plaguing researchers for years.

References

Boulton, Alexander O.

1986

The Transformation of Middle Plantation: Williamsburg before 1700. Paper on file, Office of Archaeological Excavation, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg.

Binford, Lewis

1962

A New Method for Calculating Dates from Kaolin Pipe Stem Fragments. Southeastern Archaeological Conference Newsletter, 9(1):19-21. Cambridge.

Brown, Gregory J.

1986

Phase I and II Archaeological Investigations of the Port Anne Development, Williamsburg, Virginia. Office of Archaeological Excavation, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg.

Carson, Cary, Norman Barka, William Kelso, Gary Wheeler Stone, and Dell Upton

1981

Impermanent Architecture in the Southern American Colonies. Winterthur Portfolio 16(2/3):135-196.

Craven, Wesley Frank

1970

The Southern Colonies in the Seventeenth Century 1607-1689, Volume I, "A History of the South". Louisiana State University Press and the Littlefield Fund for Southern History, University of Texas.

Goodwin, Rutherfood T.

1959

A Brief and True Report Concerning Williamsburg in Virginia. Dietz Press, Richmond.

Harrington, Jean C.

1954

Dating Stem Fragments of Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Clay Tobacco Pipes. Quarterly Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Virginia, 9(1), Richmond.

Henry, Susan L.

1979

Terra-Cotta Tobacco Pipes in Seventeenth Century Maryland and Virginia: a Preliminary Study. Historical Archaeology 13:14-37.

Hunter, Robert R., Jr. and Patricia Kandle

1986

Phase I Archaeological Survey of the Proposed Ware Creek Reservoir Area, James City and New Kent Counties, Virginia. Office of Archaeological Excavation, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg. 46

Hunter, Robert R., Jr. and Thomas F. Higgins III

1985

Phase I Archaeological Survey of the Proposed 199 Project, James City and York Counties, Virginia. Office of Archaeological Excavation, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg.

Hunter, Robert R., Jr., Thomas F. Higgins, and Charles T. Hodges

1987

Phase II Evaluation Study of Archaeological Resources within the Proposed Route 199 Extension Corridor, James City and York Counties, Virginia. Office of Archaeological Excavation, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg.

McCartney, Martha W.

1976

A History of College Landing. Research Report No. 58, Foundation Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg.

Miller, Henry

1983

A Search for the "Citty of Saint Maries", St. Maries Citty Archaeological Series #1, St. Mary's City Commission.

Noel Hume, Audrey

1979

Clay Tobacco Pipes Excavated at Martin's Hundred, Virginia, 1976-1978, in Peter Davey (ed.), The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe, II: the United States of America. British Archaeological Series 2:3-36, Oxford.

Noel Hume, Ivor

1982

Martin's Hundred, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.

South, Stanley

1977

Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology, Academic Press, New York.

Appendix 1.
Descriptive Artifact Catalog,
by William E. Pittman, Archaeological Collections Supervisor

Appendix 2.
Faunal Overview,
by
Roni Hinote Polk

Artifact Inventory
College Landing
Site CL7 (44WB49)

TOTAL COUNT: 5,759